This page is a brief history of the citadel since its construction. A Stratum is a horizontal layer of rock, etc in the earth's crust. Thorough and careful excavation of this site from its occupation down to its beginnings in the Iron Age has provided for the first time a sequence of strata spanning the entire sweep of Judean history from the settlement to the end of the monarchy (plus the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman periods). The information here was provided by the original archaeologist of the site Yohanan Aharoni and additional information are indicated with NOTE.

(NOTE. According to 'The Fortress Mound Program' by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority, "Discovered inside the fortress, were some 200 clay shards bearing ink-inscribed or engraved writings called ostraca and dating from various periods of the Judean kingdom as well as from the period of Perian rule. Over 100 of these ostraca are written in Hebrew and some 90 in Aramaic.")

After an interval of about 1500 years following the destruction of the ancient city, a new town was founded beginning the Israelite settlement. This was a small unfortified town on the southeast edge of the ancient city, on the edge that thereafter became the citadel mound. ...findings from this stratum were excavated mainly on the western slope, where we dug deeply outside the walls of the later citadel, and in the area of the sanctuary at the top of the hill. It seems that their only defense was an embankment around the edge of the slope. In the ... of the town, at the top of the hill, there was a holy ... which was surround by a temenos wall, within it were remains of a high place and altar.

(Note. The 12th century was when the Jebusites still had controll over Jebusi and whatever fortification they had upon mount Zion. The embankment spoke of could very well be consider Millo by definition. Yet toward the end of the 11th century was David's reign and conquest of the fort and also the creation of the tabernacle of David. Temenos means a piece of land cut off as an official or sacred domain; temonos - a sacred precinct.)

... stratum a citadel was constructed --- the first in a series of Israelite fortresses built and destroyed during the monarchy period. Its area was about 50 x 50 square meters, and it was surrounded by a casemate wall with projecting towers, one on each corner, and two on each side. The gate was in the northeast corner opposite the sanctuary, which stood in the northeast corner. This sanctuary was one of the chief buildings of the citadel, and continued to exist with changes and repairs during Strata XI-VII. (number of inscriptions found from this time was 6) 

(NOTE. Solomon also sought to refortify the citadel and tabernacle that his father had placed the ark. As written in (1Ki:11:27:) "And this was the cause that he lifted up his hand against the king: Solomon built Millo, and repaired the breaches of the city of David his father." And he called the fortress that David dwelled in with the Ark a holy place. As stated in (2Ch:8:11:) "And Solomon brought up the daughter of Pharaoh out of the city of David unto the house that he had built for her: for he said, My wife shall not dwell in the house of David king of Israel, because the places are holy, whereunto the ark of the LORD hath come." )

A new wall was built surrounding the fortress --- a wall full of small angles and without towers. The gate was moved a little to the south and was now near the center of the eastern side. In the northeast corner of the fortress, a storehouse was built which remained part of all future citadels, up to Stratum VI. The courtyard was from now on in the center of the fortress toward the eastern side; however, its exact size is unknown because of the Hellenistic tower whose foundations were sunk deeply here. Living quarters were to the south of the courtyard, along the southern wall. To the west of the courtyard were additional rooms, some of them workshops. At the bottom of the slopes was an exterior terrace wall supporting the glacis the length of the slope. A water canal was dug in this stratum which brought the water to cisterns dug in the rock underneath some of the buildings of the fortress. (number of inscriptions found from this time was 11) 

The plan of the fortress, the placement of the important buildings, and its wall remained the same in this stratum. As to the fortifications, here is the beginning of a phenomenon characteristic of the two subsequent strata: parallel lines have been built inside of the thick walls, similar to casemate walls. Apparently this was done for two reasons; to strengthen the parts of the wall that had become weak, and to make it wider. The sacrificial altar found in the courtyard of the sanctuary is from Stratum IX, and under it are remains of earlier altars. (number of inscriptions found from this time was 10) 

The plan of the citadel remained the same as that of Stratum IX in all important details. Although the sanctuary was rehabilitated, the sacrificial altar ceased to be used, and the floor of the courtyard covered it. (number of inscriptions found from this time was 22) 

(NOTE. The shewbread table is mis-called the altar.) 

The plan of the citadel and its buildings was again similar to its predecessors. The outstanding innovation here is the addition of an interior wall parallel to the whole southern wall of the fortress. Thus the living quarters located here were trucated and their southern portions became small casemate rooms. In one of these rooms, near the eastern corner (Locus 779), the seals of Eliashib were found. (number of inscriptions found from this time was 13) 

This citadel; it existed for only about ten years. The fortress was encircled by a new casemate wall which had towers projecting at the corners and in the middle of each side, similar to the fortress of Kadesh-Barnea and Horvat Uzza. Along the western side and in the northwest corner, a completely new wall was built, whereas the rest of the wall was rebuilt along the lines of the old wall. In the south, the interior line of the casement wall of Stratum VII became the exterior wall of Stratum VI. The general plan of the fortress was not changed in this stratum except for two things: the sanctuary ceased to exist, most of it being buried under the wall; and the gate was moved to the north side. It would seem that the two changes were connected, the cancellation of the sanctuary, the area built courtyard into which a new gate led.  

(NOTE. The number of inscriptions found from this time were 32 all of which mention offers that continued to be brought the the site. Also not long after the end of the citadel the Babylonians invaded Judah and destroyed most of the cities laid the land waste by 568 B.C.E.) 

We learn of the existence of this stratum mainly from the ostraca found in the refuse pits scattered over the whole area. No buildings or floors were discovered which could be ascribed to this level. According to the contents of the ostraca, it is clear that there was a fortress in this stratum, too. It seems that it was not large and was located where the Hellenistic tower was later built. Perhaps the Persian fortress was completely destroyed when the tower was built during the Hellenistic period or else the foundations of the Hellenistic tower were from the Persian period. (number of inscriptions found from this time was 85) 

(NOTE. The house of Yahweh at Tel Arad in Persian times according to the 'Fortress Mound Program' by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority "The bulk of the Aramaic ostraca ascribed to the Persian period give lists detailing amounts of food and money...." In this same period the scriptures specks of the King Cyrus of Persia and stated at 2Ch:36:22: "Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, that the word of the LORD spoken by the mouth of Jeremiah might be accomplished, the LORD stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king of Persia, that he made a proclamation throughout all his kingdom, and put it also in writing, saying, 2Ch:36:23: Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD God of heaven given me; and he hath charged me to build him an house in Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Who is there among you of all his people? The LORD his God be with him, and let him go up." From the writtings found at the house in this time it shows the same pattern of offerings at the House of Yahweh as during the kingdom of Judah.

According to the Complete Reference Collection 1998- Compton's Home Library it is stated that the Persian Empire was conquered by Alexander the Great (c. 328 B.C.) and they took the land of Judah in what is called the Hellenistic Era.) 

The main fortification of the period was the largest tower about twenty by twenty meters --- whose foundations were sunk down to bedrock thus destroying the remains of other strata in this place. Mainly to the west and north of this tower were several buildings used as living quarters and workshops. 

(NOTE. With the builting of this citadel in the 3rd century, also Eleazar the high priest was the ruler of the land and had sellected men to translate the Torah for Ptolemy II (or Philadelphus 308 to 246 B.C.) (Letter of Aristeas 3:63) Philadelphus made a number of things for the temple at this time, however, the House of Yahweh (tabernacle of David) wasn't mentioned in the record. By the time of the second century (198-168 BC) the Seleucids controlled Palestine, taking it from Egypt in campaigns of Antiochus III.

At this time Judas Maccabee was a fine soldier, and patriot, with a clear-policy of Jewish independence and religious reconstruction. Raising and organizing a fighting force of Galileans, Judas defeated major military expeditions sent against him in 166 and 165 B.C. in December of the latter year, Judas formally cleansed the House of Yahweh of Syrian pollution and celebrated the occasion with a great festival. This festival became a permanent fixture, falling on December 25, and lasting eight days (I Macc. 4:52-59; 11 Macc. 10:6; John 10:22). The Sabbath Year kept in Israel on Mount Zion pg. 138 or Ch. 6:48 in Maccabees time. The Hasmonaeans continued their dynasty till 34 B.C. when Herod and the Romans put down Antigonus, the last of Mattathias' line, but the Maccabees proper-ended with Simon in 134 B.C. This was about as long as this level of the citadel and House of Yahweh existed til.)

A Roman citadel, about thirty by thirty-seven meters was built here, only slightly smaller than the Israelite citadel. Its foundations were not deep, thus not much damage was done to earlier levels. Almost no material was found which could be ascribed to this stratum within the fortress. Material from the first and second centuries C.E. was found mainly at the foot of the tell and in the garbage dumps --- apparently from the time of this citadel. (number of inscriptions found from this time was 2) 

(NOTE. The house was constructed apparently by Herod and completed approximately around 23 AD. In 'The Fortress Mound Program' by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority it is also stated that "During the Herodian period (first century BCE), the lower city well was renovated and several plastered storage pools - some equipped with troughs (which bakers may use for knead dough for bread) -were constructed nearby." This was just about the same time that some of the Dead Sea Scrolls were transcribed. Some time later the historian Flavius Josephus wrote concerning the citadel of David and what the people of his time called the place. As stated in the 'Wars of the Jews' 5:1: "... Of these hills, that which contains the upper city is much higher, and in length more direct. Accordingly, it was called the "Citadel" by king David; he was the father of that Solomon who built this temple at the first; but it is by us called the 'Upper Marketplace'."  

After the revolts of 70 AD, the Jews recaptured Jerusalem in 132 A.D. led by Bar Cochba, but the Roman Emperor Hedrian drove them out three years later. Yet, what was left of the city was leveled to the ground. Then, Hedrian concocted a plan to tried to end all Jewish hope of regaining Jerusalem. So, he renamed the city of the Jebusite Jerusalem to Aelia Capitolina. Afterward in 135 AD, Hadrian ordered the expulsion of the "circumcised" from Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). And he prohibited Jews from visiting or living in Jerusalem. And all Jews were strictly excluded for two centuries from the land of Israel south of Galilea.) 

At the beginning of the Arab period, a house of some prosperous clan or an inn was built on the tell on the location of the Roman fortress. Several rooms of the Roman fortress were repaired and used at this time, and new rooms were built in the rest of the area. The Arab building was destroyed, not later than the end of the ninth century C.E., and thus there was no further settlement here.  

(NOTE. After the Muslems had conquered Persia and Iraq in 635 A.D. they then conquered Jordan, Palestine, and Syria in 636 A.D. and took over Egypt in 646 A.D. It was around this time that the reconstruction of the House was made. In House of Yahweh Elohim (Allah-as-from) at this time there had also been a few writings found written in Arabic. In 691 A.D. the Doom of the Rock was built by the Caliph Abd al-Malik. Nevertheless, this house existed for almost 200 years in the Islamic Empire. It may be possible that the STRATUM II of the Arab inn or the House of Yahweh Elohim (Allah-as-from) was destroyed around about 861 A.D. From 842-847 A.D. Al-Wahiq reigned as caliph, and tried to halt rising influence of non-Arabs. Also in between 861-945 AD there was a breakdown of central authority and a period of widespread rebellion and unrest. Provincial rulers of new eastern (Arabia and Babylon) and western (Syria, Palestine, and Eygpt) parts of the Islamic empire became largely automous and political & military leadership was taken over by the amir. By the midde 10th century the Muslim Empire had broken up into several warring parts.)  

After the Arab building was destroyed, not later than the end of the ninth century C.E., there was no further settlement here. Most of the area of the citadel became a Bedouin burial ground. These graves, some of which were dug down to the upper Israelite levels, constitute the last stratum of the tell. 

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